THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE (A Deeper Shade of Green - Introduction)
Wednesday, August 06, 2008
We have just experienced – once again – a year of weather contrasts. In New Zealand, it brought floods to the north and droughts to the east and to the south, with Taranaki suffering tornadoes in-between. Insurers lament the costs, increasing by the millions from year-to-year, of damaged homes, roads and infrastructure. Adding flow-on costs to the environment, welfare budgets, power restoration and losses to local businesses and farms, leads to a substantial and continuously growing bottom line of weather-related costs.
Such calamities are nothing new, except that they turn out to be increasingly more frequent and more severe. Chances are it will get even worse.
The writing has been on the wall for a considerable time. Ever since the Club of Rome, in 1972, published Limits to Growth, we have been informed that the earth’s resources are finite and that humans are living beyond their means. Not that it bothered too many of us. On the contrary, of far greater concern in those days was the so-called oil-crisis, which threatened the very basis of our economies: the perpetual growth of everything from GDP to incomes, to spending, to taxes, to public services, the list goes on.
There seems to be nothing wrong with perpetual economic growth, unless one acknowledges two basic facts:
- There is only one earth available to provide life-sustaining resources, and many of them are finite
- Economic growth as we know it comes at the price of simultaneous growth in environmental degradation.
Cancer-like growth keeps extending its tentacles over all life-sustaining systems in the form of air–, water– and land-pollution, in its effects on natural habitats and its contribution to species extinction. Ultimately, the ever-growing insatiable demands of fossil-fuelled economies have extended the realms of growth right up to the outer edges of the earth’s atmosphere in the form of greenhouse gases.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), are concentrating in the earth’s atmosphere, trapping some of the sun’s heat and reflecting it back towards the earth. As they proliferate through the continued growth of burning fossil fuels, and other human-induced activities, the build-up of their concentration follows, trapping more heat. The ensuing increase in the average temperature levels on the surface of the earth has far-reaching effects on climate patterns and life systems.
Lack of drinking water for billions, reduction of arable land for food production, rising sea levels, all unleashing migratory movements of unknown dimensions, are just some of the predicted scenarios culminating in the expectation of the end of civilisation as we know it – unless humanity as a whole gets its act together and does something about it.
According to Bill McKibbens (National Geographic, October 2007), “global warming presents the greatest test we have yet faced. Are we ready to change, in dramatic and prolonged ways, in order to offer a workable future to subsequent generations and diverse forms of life? If we are, new technologies and new habits offer some promise. But only if we move quickly and decisively – and with a maturity we’ve rarely shown as a society or species. It’s our coming-of-age moment, and there are no certainties or guarantees. Only a window of possibility, closing fast but still ajar enough to let in some hope.” How small that window really is becomes evident by looking at the concentration of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. Before the industrial revolution it contained about 280 parts per million. Now it’s at 385 ppm, rising by about 2 ppm annually. Scientists have set a threshold of 450 ppm, which we are strongly advised to respect. No previous experience can be drawn upon when imagining scenarios beyond that level.
And then there is the ever-growing use of non-renewable resources. This, in combination with the energy consumption, constitutes what Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees of the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, in 1992 called the Ecological Footprint. This scientific tool measures how much land and water area a population uses to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste. It reveals the sad reality that developed countries typically use their ‘allocated’ yearly budget of resources long before the year is over.
Various calculations have confirmed that if everyone on the planet lived at the current collective levels of energy and resource consumption in New Zealand, we would need three earths. That level is clearly unsustainable. If we think we can go on living beyond our means we might have to think again. Being truly smart means finding ways to live well, and within our means. But that requires a fundamental paradigm shift in our collective and individual attitudes.
Charles Darwin once said, “It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but the one most responsive to change”. The world has changed dramatically and the time for us to respond is urgent.
This book is concerned with sustainable models; in the way we direct urban development, with changes to the way we build and how sustainable concepts are interpreted into architecture. The huge positive difference the building sector can make is indicated by the impacts the built environment has on resources. Worldwide it uses:
- Half of its materials and energy
- One sixth of the world’s freshwater
- A quarter of the planet’s wood.
NEW ZEALAND TAKING LEADERSHIP
The Kyoto Protocol, a global treaty targeting global warming, was signed and ratified by 165 countries, setting targets for each developed country to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Currently none of the signatories looks likely to achieve their target. They will have to resort to the ‘flexibility mechanism’, meaning they can buy their way out by trading carbon credits.
New Zealand committed to reducing its emissions to 1990 levels by 2012. The reality is that we are not only failing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, we actually increased them by about 21% between 1990 and 2004. Under current policies, New Zealand’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected to increase by another 30% over the next 25 years. Confronted with such a bleak outlook, the Government has shifted its policy from the focus on the Kyoto Protocol target to engaging the public in active participation.
The challenge has been squarely placed before the New Zealand public: companies, community groups and individuals are all invited to do their bit. It is ambitious, as the Government’s aim is to make the country ‘carbon-neutral’ by mid-century: “Why shouldn’t New Zealand aim to be the first country which is truly sustainable – not by sacrificing our living standards but by being smart and determined?” (Prime Minister Helen Clark 2007)
The statement is encouraging. It now needs to be followed-up by a myriad of supportive actions to enable the building industry to be an effective contributor. Once the concept of sustainability has been established it will have to be cemented as a permanent element of our professional identity. Call it a lasting habit.
THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY
What does it mean being truly sustainable? The answer can be simple and yet complex.
People always knew that if a community consumed all the grain it produced in a year, there would be nothing left to generate another harvest in the following year. Hence, the group couldn’t sustain itself and would perish. It’s as simple as that, and smart societies throughout history have heeded the basics of this rule. In the business world the equation is: costs generated in any activity have to be recovered in order to keep that activity going. With one exception, that is: the cost of damage to the environment.
As long as limited numbers of people had a relatively low standard of living, based on natural processes, the earth was able to absorb damage and replenish its resources. All this changed with the advent of industrialised societies. The combination of population explosion, fossil fuel-based industries creating mass produced goods, and an unprecedented increase in living standards dramatically altered the environmental balance. The damaging effects of the exploitation of the earth’s resources, the pollution of land, air and water, the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere – all costs to the environment – was never accounted for, let alone mitigated.
It took 200 years of accumulated damage before the United Nations came up with an account balance that included environmental costs. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Norwegian prime minister Gro Harlem Bruntland, released the report Our Common Future, presenting the term ‘sustainable development’ for the first time:
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
While the definition may sound logical and simple, its translation into workable concepts constitutes the complex part of the deal.
In 2002, the New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE) took the definition a step further by identifying sustainable development as a holistic approach. The move towards a sustainable society takes into account environmental concerns as well as economic, social and cultural aspects.
A simple list of elements of environmental sustainability in the building sector includes:
- Minimising infrastructural and transport needs
- Replacing fossil-fuelled with renewable energy generation
- Replacing non-renewable with renewable materials
- Creating healthy indoor living and working environments
- Restoring natural water cycles and reducing water consumption
- Eliminating the concept of waste.
The beneficial effects we can expect of these steps include a substantial reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, clean air, good water and land qualities, the preservation of non-renewable resources and a healthier population.
Economic sustainability is based on the concept of a building’s long-term ‘life-cycle costs’. The conventional and traditional cost calculations for property developments include merely the cost of building. This needs to be extended to include the sum of the costs incurred during the life of the building, such as costs of operation, maintenance, renovation and the eventual disposal of a building. The resulting reflection of the true costs shows that a sustainable building is, over its lifetime, substantially more economical than a conventional one.
Social and cultural sustainability is concerned with impacts on ethnic groups, families and local communities and how sustainable concepts translate into beneficial effects on society as a whole.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
The year 2007 might go into history as the pivotal point when environmental sustainability moved from a fringe issue to a central position of public concern. Given the huge scope of global and local environmental problems, and the equivalent monumental scope of ‘repair’ costs looming, government, business and individuals came to realise that the time for procrastination was long-gone.
Green building concepts have been applied in New Zealand for many years and environmentally-friendly houses and buildings can be found across the country. But existing regulations and rules, prevailing technologies and building materials, general levels of expertise and training, and conventional investment considerations have not been conducive to achieving high levels of sustainability. We have been limited to reducing impacts, limiting damage and improving quality, which is a laudable start, but nothing more. Apart from a few notable exceptions, the level of sustainability we have achieved in New Zealand, so far, can be classified as a ‘light shade of green’. The time has come to accelerate the drive and to aim for ‘a deeper shade of green’.
This book is intended as a catalyst in the process. It offers an introduction into the new realm of sustainable thinking, concepts and solutions. It aims to give as wide an overview on sustainable topics and issues as possible, and cover the world of building-related activities, from questions of urban development to neighbourhood concepts, to housing options, to the design of public and commercial buildings, identifying alternatives for sustainable energy-, water- and material-use along the way. It initiates a process of reflection on how sustainable concepts influence the built environment around us and what the future of sustainable architecture might look like.
It is also directed at a multitude of stakeholder groups whose contributions are vital for a successful shift, thereby acknowledging the adage that the result will be greater than the sum of its parts. The stakeholder groups include central and local governments, professionals, manufacturing and construction industries, investors, non-government organisations and the general public.
Finally, it offers a glimpse of what we have achieved to date in New Zealand, with a selection of sustainable projects featured in a series of case studies across the spectrum of urban development, housing and public and commercial buildings.
The book aims to introduce sustainability concepts for the whole building sector but also acknowledges the need for additional in-depth and detailed information. Many sources now exist that are geared towards providing the answers required for turning sustainable concepts into reality. Websites, relating to every chapter, will help readers in their quest for further exploration.
INPUT
The knowledge-base and expertise on the wide range of sustainability concepts across the building sector has, over the past years, seen enormous progress. Many people and organisations have pushed the envelope and prepared the ground for industry-wide application. The book reflects this collective achievement, and is a true team effort.
Contributing writers are all leading experts in their fields. They direct pre-eminent architectural firms on their path to sustainability, they are research fellows and teachers at our universities, they advise Government on sustainability issues, they run successful private research and consultancy operations and, most of all, they are involved in leading-edge sustainable development projects up and down the country. They all share their expertise and experience in the interest of progress. Naturally, their perceptions of what constitutes sustainability and how best to achieve it might vary in some instances. It is a nascent field and we can’t resort to tried and tested solutions yet. Any resulting variations in opinion point to the need for further exploration.
Apart from those that are named in connection with the chapter they wrote, many more have made valuable contributions through advice, information, illustrations and peer review. They are part of the team. Heartfelt thanks to everybody.
Buy the book: Purchase online from Ecobob